Pharmacological treatments aren’t effective for everyone, and some people prefer not to take medications if they aren’t absolutely needed. For these patients, external neuromodulation devices can help prevent and/or treat a migraine attack.

There are a number of neuromodulators on the market, all of which target different nerves or areas of the brain. Here’s a roundup of what’s available.

Cefaly®

Cefaly is a transcutaneous supraorbital (above the eyes on the forehead) neurostimulation device cleared by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in March 2014 for the prevention of migraine headaches in people 18 years and older. It’s the only neuromodulation device available without a prescription.

The device attaches to the forehead with an adhesive electrode. When you switch it on, it generates precise micro-impulses to stimulate the trigeminal nerve, which is known to be involved in most migraine headaches. Stimulation of the trigeminal nerve is believed to suppress activity in the fibers within the nerve that carry pain signals to the brain.

The manufacturer recommends you use Cefaly once a day for 20 minutes to prevent migraine attacks. The device allows you to increase the impulses’ intensity so your sessions become more and more effective as you build tolerance. Unfortunately, you’re not able to reduce the impulse intensity, so if the starting intensity is too high and causes pain, there’s nothing you can do, and you’ll have to look for something else.

You shouldn’t use Cephaly if you have a metallic or electronic implant in your head, if your pain stems from an unknown origin, or if you have a cardiac pacemaker or an implanted or a wearable defibrillator.

Side effects from using Cefaly are rare. The most notable are an uncomfortable feeling of the device on the forehead, allergic skin reaction to the electrode, fatigue both during and after the session, and a headache after the session.

Cerena transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

Transcranial magnetic stimulation  is a noninvasive method of brain stimulation cleared by the FDA on December 13, 2013 for use in patients who have migraine with aura. The device uses electromagnetic impulses to regulate signals in the brain. You need to get a prescription from your doctor to use it.

A plastic-insulated metal coil placed over the scalp generates pulses that can be delivered one at a time or in rapid succession. When  delivered in rapid succession, the treatment is known as repetitive TMS (rTMS).

Recent studies show that single-pulse TMS therapy may be effective in treating acute migraine with aura after the first attack. An attack occurs when bursts of neural activity in the nerves that connect the brain to the face and other parts of the head are followed by a period of inactivity known as cortical spreading depression.

The brain operates through the conduction of electrical impulses, so intentionally introducing mild electrical fields through TMS may modulate the excitability of the brain’s neurons and thereby reduce cortical spreading depression. rTMS may help prevent migraine attacks by producing longer-lasting changes in brain activity.

You may be a good candidate for transcranial magnetic stimulation if your migraine attacks don’t respond to medication.

Side effects of TMS are generally mild-to-moderate and improve shortly after treatment. They may include some scalp discomfort; tingling, spasms, or twitching of facial muscles; and lightheadedness.

You shouldn’t receive TMS if you have a pacemaker, shunt, or spinal cord stimulator.

gammaCore®

gammaCore is a noninvasive vagal nerve stimulator (nVNS) that can be used for acute treatment of migraine and cluster headaches in patients 12 and older. It also comes with dosing regimens for the prevention of migraine and cluster headaches. Patients with hemicrania continua (one-sided continuous headache) and paroxysmal hemicrania (sudden, severe head pain on one side of your head, usually behind the eye) may see benefit with gammaCore as well.

Treatment duration is 4-6 minutes, and it can be repeated throughout the day if you experience additional attacks.

Possible side effects include skin irritation, muscle twitching, pain, and dizziness.

gammaCore shouldn’t be used in pregnant women or those with carotid atherosclerosis, congenital cardiac issues, prior vagal nerve surgeries, high or low blood pressure or heart rate, or an implantable electric stimulation or metallic device.

Relivion®

Relivion is a multi-channel brain neuromodulation system. It targets branches of both the occipital and trigeminal nerves with electrical stimulation designed to treat acute migraine pain in patients at least 18 years old.

As with the other neuromodulators, you shouldn’t use Relivion if you have an active implantable medical stimulator or other metal device.

Side effects may include scalp numbness, tingling sensation, pain, skin irritation, sleepiness, dizziness, and headache.

Nerivio®

Nerivio is unique in that it’s worn on the upper arm instead of the head. It stimulates small nerves that send transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation to a pain regulation center in the brainstem. That center inhibits pain signals by releasing neurotransmitters.

Nerivio is meant to be used for patients who have episodic migraine and who are at least 18 years old. You shouldn’t use Nerivio if you have an active implantable medical device (e.g., pacemaker, vagal nerve stimulator, spinal cord stimulator). Each treatment lasts for 45 minutes, and the device is thought to be most effective if used within one hour of the onset of the pain phase of a migraine attack. Research is currently underway to determine its efficacy if used during the prodrome phase that precedes the pain.

If you’re struggling with migraine attacks, talk to your physician about which neuromodulator, if any, may be best for your individual circumstances.

If you have migraine, or if you’re simply interested in learning about migraine and other headache disorders, the Migraine World Summit is going on this week, March 20-27, online. There will be 32 speakers over the eight days, talking about every aspect of the disorder, symptoms, treatments, and research that’s currently being conducted.

The Summit has been held every year since its inception in 2015, and registration is free, but you can purchase an All-Access Pass if you’re not going to be able to watch during the week and want to access the interviews, videos, and transcripts later on. Go to migraineworldsummit.com to register.

 

Migraine is one of the oldest medical conditions known to mankind. Some of the earliest cases of painful headaches that we know about were recorded by the ancient Egyptians around 1200 BCE.

Around 400 BCE, Hippocrates described the visual disturbances, now known as an aura, that can precede a migraine attack, such as flashing lights or blurred vision. He also described that patients felt relief if they were able to vomit.

The credit for the discovery of migraine, though, was given to Aretaeus of Cappadocia who, during the second century CE, described the unilateral headaches typical of migraine attacks, as well as the associated vomiting and the periods between attacks where the patient is symptom-free.

The word migraine comes from the Latin word “hemicrania” meaning “half” (hemi) and “skull” (crania). Hemicrania was first used by Galenus of Pergamon to describe the one-sided pain felt by people undergoing an attack.

Galenus also suggested that the pain originated in the meninges and vasculature of the head, as well as suggested a connection between the stomach and the brain due to the vomiting that often comes with a migraine attack.

A popular Islamic philosopher, Avicenna, described migraine in his textbook on medicine entitled “El Qanoon fel teb;” he mentioned how eating, drinking, sounds, and light all worsened the head pain felt during a migraine attack and indicated how patients tended to rest alone in a dark room until the attack passed.

Abu Bakr Mohamed Ibn Zakariya Râzi pointed to an association between migraine and hormones when he mentioned how such intense attacks would often occur during menopause, after childbirth, or during the menstrual cycle.

Not all descriptions or suggestions were favorable for migraine patients. Andalusian-born physician Abulcasis, also known as Abu El Qasim, suggested that the one-sided headache could best be treated by applying hot irons to the head or garlic to the site through an incision in the temple.

The Middle Ages also offered several ineffective treatments for migraine including bloodletting and even witchcraft.

It wasn’t until the “Bibliotheca Anatomica, Medic, Chirurgica was published in London in 1712 that migraine was described along with other major headache types.

In the late 1930s, Graham and Wolff reported that an ergotamine tart (derived from the ergot fungus) could help abort migraine attacks. The tart provided relief by causing vasoconstriction of dilated blood vessels in the brain.

In 1950, Harold Wolff devised an experimental approach to exploring the brain, and he proposed from his research that blood vessel abnormalities were associated with migraine, something we know about today.

Today, we’re also learning about the complex role that neurotransmitters, peptides, hormones, and other molecules play in the cascade that leads to a migraine attack. Researchers are developing more targeted therapies based on our growing knowledge about human pathophysiology.

 

Citation:

Mandal, MD, Anaya. (2025). “Migraine History.” Retrieved from https://www.news-medical.net/health/Migraine-History.aspx.

 

You feel pain and pressure in your face, especially above and around the eyes, and you’ve got a runny nose. Is it migraine (a primary headache), or is it a sinus headache (a secondary headache)?

Especially during allergy season, most people self-diagnose a sinus headache. However, according to the American Migraine Foundation (AMF), studies indicate about 90% of these headaches are actually migraine attacks.

The barrage of marketing for over-the-counter allergy relief medications has reinforced the belief that sinus headache is a common condition; however, sinus headache isn’t as prevalent as you may think.

Here’s how you can tell the difference, so you’ll know what medical attention you need.

Migraine basics

We’ve covered this topic before, but it bears repeating here.

Migraine isn’t simply a bad headache; headache is just one component. Migraine is a chronic neurological disease that comes with a variety of disabling symptoms, including pain, and a number of different approaches to treatment.

Common migraine symptoms include:

• Moderate-to-severe, one-sided head pain
  Pain that throbs, pounds, or pulsates
  Pain that worsens with movement
  Nausea and/or vomiting
  Sensitivity to light, noise, and/or smells
  Nasal congestion and runny nose

The AMF estimates that over 40 million Americans live with migraine. Since many people don’t get either an accurate diagnosis or the proper treatment they need, though, the actual number is likely much higher.

Sinus headache basics

A true sinus headache — called rhinosinusitis — is rare. The real cause of most sinus headaches is an underlying infection of the nasal sinuses characterized by thick, discolored nasal discharge. That makes the pain a secondary headache.

Sinus headache symptoms include:

• Stuffy nose
  Facial pain
  Pressure around the eyes and behind the cheekbones
  Weak sense of smell or inability to smell
  Aching in the upper teeth
  Fever

If your infection is viral, the facial pain and headache should resolve within seven days. If the infection is bacterial, they should resolve after successful treatment with antibiotics. If your pain continues despite treatment, your doctor may review their diagnosis of sinus headache and run additional tests to determine the true cause of your symptoms.

Why is misdiagnosis common?

Research studies show that some common allergy and sinus headache symptoms present along with migraine. One study found that 45% of people with migraine reported either nasal congestion or watery eyes during an attack. In addition, migraine is underdiagnosed and undertreated, meaning self-diagnosing a migraine attack is less likely than a sinus headache.

Another study delved into the frequent complaint of sinus headache by evaluating nearly 3,000 people; none were diagnosed with or being treated for migraine prior to the study. All participants reported a minimum of six sinus headaches in the six months prior to the study’s start. The researchers found, though, that 88% of the participants had migraine and not sinus headache.

A study called the American Migraine Study II looked at nearly 30,000 individuals, and only about 50% who were eventually diagnosed with migraine knew they had migraine before the study began. The most common misdiagnosis for the remainder was sinus headache.

The nerves activated during a migraine attack are the same nerves that also supply the sinuses, ears, eyes, teeth, and jaw, helping to explain why migraine attacks are felt in these regions. When the nerves supplying the sinuses are activated (from migraine or allergies) it can lead to congestion, a runny nose, and watery eyes. Because of the symptom overlap, it’s crucial to get an evaluation from a healthcare provider, so you can receive appropriate treatment.

A quick and easy test

You can also ask yourself the following questions from the ID Migraine Questionnaire developed by Dr. Richard Lipton of the Albert Einstein College of Medicine:

• In the past three months, how disabling were your headaches?
• Do your headaches interfere with your ability to function?
• Do your headaches make you miss work, school, or family activities?
  Do you ever feel nauseous when you have a headache?
  Do you become sensitive to light while you have a headache?

If you answer “yes” to the last four questions, the likelihood of a migraine diagnosis is 98%.

Those with sinus headaches are less likely to answer yes to any of the above questions.

If you believe your sinus headaches might actually be migraine attacks, talk to your primary care provider or see a headache specialist. Your doctor may prescribe a migraine-specific medication to see if it reduces your head pain and related symptoms the next time you have a headache. If necessary, they might also order blood work or a CT scan of your sinuses to rule out an underlying sinus problem.

 

According to the American Migraine Foundation, while studies have shown migraine is a genetically based neurological disorder, factors such as your environment, lifestyle, and diet still play a large role in the frequency of your migraine attacks. You won’t be able to stop all migraine attacks simply by following a trigger-free diet, but you may be able to reduce both the frequency and severity of attacks by tending to your body’s specific dietary and nutritional needs.

Food as triggers

Can food really trigger migraine attacks? It’s actually a lot more complicated than a yes or no. Migraine prodrome can actually cause food cravings — meaning eating a specific food might be a sign that an attack is already underway and isn’t the trigger for the attack. While some foods do trigger migraine attacks, in prodrome-related eating cases, the attack would have happened no matter if the person did or didn’t eat a particular food.

The problem may be one of association. Many of those with migraine think a food or drink is a trigger because, in the past, they started experiencing the pain phase of the migraine attack while eating or drinking it. Therefore, they associate the food with pain, even though their migraine attack had already started by the time they ate the food.

It’s important to remember that migraine attacks develop due to many different factors. If you’re stressed, not sleeping well, or not exercising, some foods can make it more likely to have a migraine attack, but they’re not the sole cause.

Different people have different dietary requirements, so what triggers one person’s attacks may play no role for someone else. If you want to learn if a specific food or type of diet increases your risk of migraine attacks, keep a food diary along with your headache journal to identify consistent patterns that do, in fact, trigger migraine attacks. If you find a pattern, try avoiding the food for a while and monitor your symptoms; if they improve, the food is one of your triggers.

Extremely strict diets, though, don’t work in your favor. You may end up avoiding non-migraine-related foods and missing out on important nutrients.

Caffeine: migraine trigger or reliever?

Caffeine is commonly cited as a migraine attack trigger, together with alcohol, artificial sweeteners, and MSG. Some people, though, find that a small cup of caffeinated coffee during an attack, or a medication that contains a small amount of caffeine, can make the pain and other symptoms better.

While caffeine in small doses may provide mild head-pain relief, people who regularly consume large quantities may be at risk for withdrawal symptoms if they try to quit “cold turkey.” And withdrawal itself can be a migraine trigger.

In a study published in the journal Neurology, the researchers concluded that “Dietary and medicinal caffeine consumption appears to be a modest risk factor for chronic daily headache [emphasis added] onset, regardless of headache type.”

How caffeine affects you as an individual with migraine also depends on how much water you drink between doses, as caffeinated beverages affect migraine symptoms indirectly by causing dehydration. It’s important to drink at least eight, eight-ounce glasses of water every day if you aren’t drinking caffeinated drinks, and add another full glass for each caffeinated cup to offset its dehydrating effects.

If you find your headaches are being triggered by caffeine withdrawal, try to reduce caffeine slowly, by about 25% a week. It’s enough to wean you off of it but avoid the unpleasant withdrawal symptoms that can occur.

Dietary guidelines

The US Department of Health and Human Services’ Dietary Guidelines for Americans (DGA) makes food recommendations to help you lead a healthier life. They’re not tailored to people with migraine, but they’re helpful in maintaining a healthy and balanced diet; this alone can reduce the frequency of migraine attacks.

Some DGA recommendations include:

Aim for half of your daily grains to be whole grains, which contain more fiber and vitamins than grains with the hulls removed. Substitute whole grains for white bread, white rice, and white pasta in your diet.

Eat a colorful diet, maintaining a variety of fresh fruits and vegetables in your diet. At each meal, half your plate should be fruits and vegetables.

Instead of sticking to a low-fat diet, aim to eat healthier fats like olive oil and avocado. Limit “saturated” and “trans fats” (often found in highly processed and/or fried foods) when possible, and increase your seafood consumption to two to three times per week for those healthy omega-3 fats.

Limit sodium to less than 2300 mg per day. Ditch the processed foods like heat-and-eat frozen meals, canned soups, and chips and crackers, which all contain a lot of salt, and cook from scratch or choose foods labeled “low sodium” whenever you can.

In addition to the basics of a healthy diet, if you have migraine, there are a few other things to keep in mind:

• Don’t skip meals; hunger can trigger a migraine attack
  Start your day with fuel. Eat a high-protein breakfast within 30-60 minutes of waking up
  Consider eating five small meals per day; include a carbohydrate, a protein, and a healthy fat in each one to stay full longer
  Stay away from any food or drink that’s a known trigger
  Drink water during the day instead of sugary sodas or juice

The more mindful you are about your diet, the less frequently you’ll experience migraine attacks.

 

Many people with migraine have an adversarial relationship with their gut. During an attack, it can cause stomach and abdominal pain, nausea, an overly full sensation, and more. But why would a disorder that causes crippling headaches affect the gastrointestinal (GI) tract so severely?

Vince Martin, MD, AQH, Director of the Headache & Facial Pain Center at the University of Cincinnati Gardner Neuroscience Institute, spoke at the 2024 Migraine World Summit and explained some of the varied reasons people living with migraine also struggle with gut issues.

The association, he says, relates to the autonomic nervous system, especially the vagus nerve. It’s often called the gut-brain superhighway, since it extends all the way from the brain and down into the GI tract. That means many of the same neurochemicals involved in migraine are also found in the nerve cells of the gut.

Some of the main players are serotonin, which we know is important in migraine; glutamate, another neurotransmitter involved in attacks; and CGRP (calcitonin gene-related peptide, a key component of new preventive treatments). They’re all found in the gut in large quantities.

There are also neurologic connections between the trigeminal system,  the main nerve involved in migraine, and the center in the brain that controls nausea. When that center gets activated, nerves that go to the stomach cause the organ to stop contracting, and that gives you the feeling of nausea.

Gastroparesis, the loss of contraction, is a common side effect of a migraine attack. Normally, the stomach contracts to propel the food into the small intestine. But when someone has a migraine attack, those contractions may stop, and the stomach just kind of sits there. It can lead to issues with nausea, but it can also lead to problems with drug absorption. Some of the oral pills that migraine patients take may not actually be absorbed if the person has gastroparesis.

It’s also possible that these symptoms could manifest outside of a migraine attack. People with migraine may chronically feel full easily or lose their appetite, they may have some pain in their stomach region, and they become easily nauseous.

One lesser-known form of migraine is called abdominal migraine. People develop pain in their epigastrium, which lies just beneath the sternum in the abdomen; they can have recurrent bouts of abdominal pain with or without “classic” migraine symptoms.

This can occur repetitively and may even stump gastroenterologists trying to diagnose the problem. They look for other pathology like gallstones or liver problems, but they don’t find anything significant. And that’s because the diagnosis is really one of exclusion. Once they’ve done their full gastrointestinal evaluation, and particularly if the patient has a history of migraine, then the pain could be called abdominal migraine.

There’s another factor to consider, too, which is the microbiome; it’s basically the collection of all the bacteria that live in your gut. The microbiome changes on a daily basis, as it’s linked to your diet, whether you’ve had any recent antibiotics, and a number of other factors.

The bacteria are a mix of anti-inflammatory and pro-inflammatory types. So, it’s the ratio between the good and the bad bacteria and the substances they produce that may promote or inhibit gut inflammation. And since what happens in the gut can influence what happens in the brain, this balance between good and bad becomes very important.

A lot of healthy lifestyles — diets rich in fruit, vegetables, and fiber — promote the healthy bacteria in your gut. If you eat a poor diet with lots of carbohydrates, sugars, and unhealthy fats, though, it creates an unhealthy environment, and you may struggle with gut symptoms.

And if you’ve been on broad-spectrum antibiotics for a long period of time, they can wreak havoc on the GI tract and the ratio of bacteria in the microbiome. It can throw you into a bad pro-inflammatory state for a long period, and perpetuate the migraine attacks.

More research needs to be done to discover the intricacies of the gut-brain system and how it affects migraine attack symptoms and migraine as a whole.

 

If you think you have migraine (or any other type of ongoing headache), discuss your symptoms with your primary care physician (PCP) first. They may be able to diagnose the condition and start treatment, though most don’t have enough of the proper training to handle more than routine cases. As a result, your PCP will probably refer you to a general neurologist or a headache specialist for follow-up.

The specialist diagnoses migraine after taking a complete medical and family health history and asking you a lot about your symptoms, including:

• What symptoms do you experience during each phase of migraine?
  How severe are the symptoms?
  How long do symptoms last?
  Do you experience an aura preceding the pain?
  How does the pain feel (i.e., shooting, throbbing, aching), and where is it located?
  Does anything make your headache better or worse?
• How long does it take you to get back to normal?
• Do any of the symptoms affect your daily life?

In addition, the doctor performs a physical exam, a neurological exam, and may also order blood tests and imaging tests (e.g., a CT scan or an MRI) to make sure nothing else can account for your headache. An electroencephalogram (EEG) can also help rule out other conditions.

If the doctor can’t find any other condition to explain your symptoms and diagnoses you with either episodic or chronic migraine, the discussion moves to treatment.

There are two types of treatment: preventive and abortive. Preventive treatment is something you take or use every day to prevent a migraine attack from starting up. Abortive (or rescue) treatment is something you take or use at the first sign of an attack to, hopefully, prevent the attack from progressing.

Both the preventive and abortive treatments can be broken down further into two categories: medication and neuromodulators.

Medication

Until recently, most preventive and abortive medications used were drugs repurposed from other conditions that, by chance, also worked on one or more of the migraine pathways in the brain.

Some of the common preventive migraine medications include:

• Antiseizure medications (valproic acid, topiramate)
  Beta-blockers (atenolol, propranolol, nadolol)
  Calcium channel blockers (verapamil)
  Tricyclic antidepressants (amitriptyline, nortriptyline, doxepin)
  Serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (venlafaxine, duloxetine)

Some of the common abortive medications include:

• Triptans (5-hydroxytryptamine)
  Ditans (lasmiditan)
  Dihydroergotamine (DHE) (prochlorperazine)
  Antinausea medications (metoclopramide, promethazine)

Medications come in different forms:

• An injection under your skin (subcutaneous)
  An oral medication
  A nasal spray
  Through an IV (intravenously)
  Suppository

The doctor weighs the risks and benefits of each type of medication before choosing one or more to manage your symptoms. As with any medication, you need to carefully follow their instructions on how to use these safely.

It’s only been in the last few years that research into the mechanisms of migraine has turned up new, migraine-specific classes of drugs. For preventive use are the calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) agonists. These are monoclonal antibodies that prevent the CGRP protein from triggering the cascade that leads to a migraine attack.

The first group of anti-CGRPs released were Aimovig®, AJOVY®, and Emgality®. They come as a subcutaneous injection self-administered once a month. Almost 60% of migraine patients treated with these drugs experienced a ≥ 50% reduction in monthly migraine days at 12 weeks compared to control subjects. Unfortunately, that means over 40% didn’t see that improvement.

For abortive use are a group of short-chain proteins called gepants and ditans, that dock with the CGRP receptor, preventing CGRP from initiating pain signals. Gepants and ditans come as oral pills or dissolvable tablets, not injectables like the monoclonal antibodies. They target very specific receptors on sensory nerves that can resolve migraine symptoms like sensory sensitivity and nausea. Because of their specificity, they come with fewer side effects than the older drugs.

Neuromodulators

The American Migraine Association explains the three noninvasive neuromodulation devices currently FDA-approved for both preventive and abortive treatment.

Transcutaneous supraorbital neurostimulator

Image from American Migraine Foundation

This device is known more commonly as the Cefaly, and it uses electrodes for stimulation. Patients place the electrodes on their forehead, connect the device, and turn it on. It stimulates the supraorbital nerves, which transmit the device’s signal to the brain.

Preventative treatment with the Cefaly lasts for 20 minutes daily. Acute treatment, which uses a different setting on the device, lasts one hour. It takes about three months to determine if the device is effective at preventing migraine attacks.

You buy the device outright, and it’s the only one available without a prescription.

Single Pulse Transcranial Magnetic Stimulator device (SpringTMS or sTMS)
This device simulates nerves using a magnet rather than electrical pulses. You place it on the back of your head, and the device delivers a magnetic charge in about one second. You can rent it in three-month increments.

The preventive dose is four pulses twice daily, with as-needed extra pulses for acute treatment up to 17 pulses per day. Like the Cephaly, it takes about three months of daily use to determine if it has a preventative effect.

Non-Invasive Vagus Nerve Stimulator (nVNS)(aka gammaCore)

Image from electroCore®

This device uses electrodes to treat attacks of episodic cluster headache, but it’s also been FDA-approved for the acute treatment of migraine-related pain in adults. You put gel on the electrodes and then press the device to the side of your neck and turn it on.

It stimulates the vagus nerve in two-minute increments. Two cycles twice a day is the dose for preventive treatment; you can add additional cycles, as needed, for acute treatment.

You do need a prescription for the device, which you rent in three-month installments. Again, it takes about three months to determine effectiveness.

Neuromodulators are a viable alternative for those who either don’t respond to the medications or have unwanted side effects.

 

Migraine is a common neurological disorder, whose attacks contains four distinct phases, one of which is a ghastly headache. Interestingly, though, it’s possible to have migraine attacks without the pain phase, a state called a silent migraine.

In children, it’s more common to see abdominal migraine, where they develop pain in their stomach and abdomen that lasts 1-72 hours and is usually not accompanied by head pain. Adults can have abdominal migraine, too, but it’s much less common.

Researchers estimate some 12% of the population live with some form of migraine, though the experience varies from one person to the next.

Unlike tension-type headaches, migraine attacks come with a bevy of neurological symptoms in addition to the pain.

Types of migraine

There are several types of migraine. The most common migraine categories are:

• Migraine with aura (classic migraine)
  Migraine without aura (common migraine)

Other types of migraine include:

• Abdominal migraine
  Chronic migraine (more than 15 headache days a month)
  Hemiplegic migraine (muscle weakness on one side)
  Menstrual migraine (hormonally induced attack)
  Migraine without headache (silent migraine)
  Retinal migraine (ocular migraine)
  Status migrainosus (aka a transformed migraine; lasts longer than a week)

You can have more than one type of migraine attack at the same time or different types at different periods in your life.

The four phases of a migraine attack

A “typical” migraine attack includes four phases, though the specific symptoms in each phase may differ between people. It’s also possible to have only two or three phases.

1. Prodrome

The first phase begins anywhere up to 24-36 hours before you experience the headache, and it’s a “warning” that an attack is coming. Symptoms include:

• Mood changes
  Excessive yawning
  Difficulty concentrating
  Difficulty sleeping
  Fatigue
  Nausea
  Increased hunger and thirst
  Frequent urination

You may also experience symptoms that are unique to you, as well as have specific triggers (e.g., processed meats, chocolate, caffeine) that set off an attack.

2. Aura

An aura is a collection of sensory, motor, and/or speech symptoms that usually precedes the headache but may appear at the same time. It lasts anywhere up to 60 minutes. You may see zigzag lines or starbursts across your vision, experience muscle weakness, tinnitus, numbness and/or tingling, and/or have difficulty speaking or understanding others.

Aura is a warning that the migraine attack is progressing and the pain phase is imminent.

Most people either have migraine with aura or migraine without aura; it’s relatively rare to have a mix of the two.

3. The pain phase

This is the phase that most people think of when you say “migraine.” It consists of a blinding, one-sided, throbbing headache that may come up from the neck region and stab you through the eyeball. It worsens with any type of activity, and you may be extremely sensitive to light, sounds, and smells.

The headache is often accompanied by a slowing of gut motility, nausea, and repeated bouts of vomiting, as well as a great deal of brain fog and difficulty concentrating on anything other than the pain, which can last from 4-72 hours. You may have difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep because of the pain.

4. Postdrome

The postdrome stage usually lasts for a few hours up to 48 hours. Symptoms feel similar to an alcohol-induced hangover, which is why it’s sometimes called a migraine hangover. Some people also say it feels like a post-adrenaline crash.

Expect your brain to still be foggy and to feel wiped out from the experience.

If you’re someone who lives with chronic migraine, you may start the prodrome for the next attack while still in the postdrome from the previous attack. As a result, you may find it difficult to concentrate on school or work, and it may be difficult to hold a job without accommodations for the attacks.

 

NEXT: Primary Headache: Migraine Diagnosis and Treatment

 

Tension-type headaches (TTHs) are the most common type of primary headache. Researchers estimate that over 70% of people have episodic TTHs. They generally affect women and people assigned female at birth more than men and people assigned male at birth.

The most common description of how the headache feels is like a tight band or vise wrapped around the head that exerts pressure on the forehead and temples.

Many factors can trigger a TTH, and you may be unable to avoid all of them. Fortunately, however, you can do a number of things to prevent TTHs from occurring, and if home-based treatments don’t work, healthcare providers have medications and other therapies to ease the pressure and pain.

Types of tension headaches

Doctors classify TTHs based on how often they occur. They include:

• Infrequent episodic: occur one day a month or less frequently
  Frequent episodic: one to 14 headaches every month for at least three months
  Chronic: more than 15 headaches every month for at least three months

As we’ve mentioned, episodic headaches are the more common form.

Symptoms of tension headaches

Symptoms vary from person to person, but most describe a TTH attack as including:

• Constant mild-to-moderate pressure and pain
  Feeling like a vise is squeezing both sides of the head
  Aching or tight neck and shoulder muscles
  Sensitivity to light and sound

These symptoms tend to emerge slowly, and they can last anywhere from 30 minutes to as long as a week. Some people with chronic TTHs feel like they’re always struggling with headache pain and pressure.

What causes a TTH?

Researchers are still trying to pin down a single cause for tension headaches. Some believe they start when the muscles between your head and neck knot up, sending the pain up into the head, and eventually tightening your scalp muscles. This muscular ripple effect often occurs when you’re stressed or dealing with emotional conflict. Other causes may include:

• Neck strain from looking down to read, look at your phone, or work on a tablet (colloquially called tech neck)
• Eye strain from staring at a screen or documents for a long time without taking breaks
  Temporomandibular jaw disorder (TMJ): damaged or misaligned muscles lead to pain and stiffness
  Degenerative arthritis in your neck
  Sleep disorders: e.g., sleep apnea and insomnia
  Anxiety
  Depression

Complications of TTHs

Chronic tension headaches that don’t let up for weeks and months can easily affect your quality of life, making it hard to focus on your work or family responsibilities because you’re always in pain.

Treating TTHs

Treatments vary depending on what type of tension headache you have. For example, for episodic headaches, the doctor may recommend you start with over-the-counter pain relievers like:

• Acetaminophen (Tylenol®)
  Aspirin
  Ibuprofen (Advil®, Motrin®)
  Naproxen sodium (Aleve®)

If you have chronic tension headaches, your provider may prescribe:

Antiseizure medications like gabapentin (Neurontin®) or topiramate (Topamax®, Topiragen ®)
Antidepressants like amitriptyline that also relieve pain
Alternative therapies like biofeedback, meditation, or cognitive-behavioral therapy to help manage stress
Physical therapy for sleep apnea or TMJ problems

Treatment side effects or complications

Side effects or any complications you might develop vary depending on the specific treatment, but one of the most common potential side effects are what used to be called rebound headaches and are now called medication overuse headaches. This can happen no matter if the medication is over-the-counter or a prescription pain reliever.

These headaches happen if you use the medication too often. Most doctors recommend limiting your dose 10 days in any given month.

Preventing a TTH

Managing your stress level may be the most effective way to prevent a TTH from forming. The most effective stress management tools  fit into your daily routine and make you feel good, like massage therapy, regular exercise (150 minutes a week), and getting enough good-quality sleep (7-9 hours a night).

 

NEXT: Primary Headache: Introduction to Migraine

 

The 150+ types of headaches can be divided into two large categories: primary and secondary.

Primary headaches are caused by dysfunction or overactivity of pain-sensitive structures in your head and are not a symptom of an underlying medical condition. Primary headaches generally aren’t dangerous, but they can be very painful and disrupt your daily life.

Some primary headaches can be triggered by lifestyle factors or situations, including:

• Alcohol, especially red wine
  Processed meats containing nitrates or foods with added MSG (food-triggered headaches)
  Using nicotine (nicotine headache)
  Change in sleep habits or lack of sleep
  Poor posture
  Physical exercise (exertion headaches)
  Skipped meals (hunger headache)
  Coughing, sneezing, blowing your nose, or straining during a bowel movement

The best-known of the primary headaches are:

• Tension-type headaches (most common type of headache)
  Migraine (a neurological disorder)
  Cluster headaches
  New daily persistent headaches (NDPH)

We’ll discuss each one of these in its own post.

Secondary headaches are caused by an underlying medical condition and are considered a symptom or sign of that condition.

Some common and non-dangerous types of secondary headaches that resolve once the underlying condition is treated include:

• Dehydration headache
  Sinus headaches (results from underlying infection)
  Medication overuse headaches (overtreating a headache with medication)

There are, however, types of secondary headaches that may indicate a serious or potentially life-threatening condition:

Spinal headaches

Spinal headaches occur when spinal fluid leaks out of the membrane surrounding your spinal cord, usually after a spinal tap. While you can treat most spinal headaches at home, prolonged, untreated spinal headaches may cause life-threatening complications like a subdural hematoma and seizures.

Thunderclap headaches

A thunderclap headache is a violently painful headache that appears suddenly, like a peal of thunder. It reaches its most intense pain within one minute and lasts at least five minutes. While these headaches may sometimes be harmless, you should seek immediate medical attention because they can be a sign of a head injury, brain bleed, or a sudden, severe rise in blood pressure that could set off a stroke.

 

NEXT: Primary Headache: Tension-Type Headache (TTH)